Ochre Archives Newsletter - Issue No. 8

Introduction
Welcome to the eighth edition of ‘Ochre Archives’, our farm newsletter.

Feedback on Ochre Archives No. 7

Elizabeth Flann advised that she is having some success in establishing False Sarsaparilla (hardenbergia violacea) as both climber and ground cover in her new indigenous garden at Chelsea (Vic.). Elizabeth has several dillwynia growing as they make a hardy and attractive feature in a small garden. A friend of Elizabeth’s has even used them successfully to create a Japanese style garden and they look very effective among the rocks and stone sculptures. We have also managed to successfully transplant a seedling from the Middle Hill Paddock to under the mailbox out the front of the farm.

Tein let us know that early settlers used Sweet Sarsaparilla (Smilax glyciphylla) rather than False Sarsaparilla for tea making as the former is truly sarsaparilla-flavoured (very sweet and strong when nibbled). False Sarsaparilla has similarly coloured and shaped leaves. Both are weak twiners and occur in the same ecosystem type, however, the difference is that the Sweet Sarsaparilla has three main veins.

Derek from Quirindi has found that what we thought were native bees are in fact a type of hoverfly. He made the identification discovery by chance after finding what he suspected were their larvae all through their barley crop feeding on aphids.

Findings from recent trips to the farm
Trees and Shrubs


Mikla Lewis tells us the mistletoe in this photo is the common Box Mistletoe (Amyema miquelii), probably so-called because it grows on Eucalypts and especially Black Box, according to Plants of WNSW. It's also called drooping or stalked mistletoe and has a lovely red flower. We have only found one Mistletoe plant on Ochre Arch to date, and have been told by an environmental scientist that large numbers in concentrated areas can signify that the ecosystem is out of balance.

Our attention was drawn to the fact that the Silky Oak (Grevillea Robusta) tree near the house was flowering by the distinctive call of a Blue-faced Honeyeater.


Silky Oak is a native of NSW and Queensland and is now grown as a popular ornamental tree all over the world. The tree requires full sun for maximum flower development and is the largest of the Grevilleas reaching 30m tall in native areas. The timber is strong and silken in texture and used in cabinet making and craftwork.

To date we’ve located over 20 Angular (AKA Propeller Bush) Hop-bush (Dodonaea truncatiales) plants, two of which are fully mature at around 3 metres in height. The commonly used name is derived from the shape of the flowers – similar to the four pronged wooden propellers as you may be able to see in the photograph.

Last week we found a Deane’s Wattle (Acacia deanei) tree not far from Ochre Arch. It’s the first wattle we’ve come across on the place.

Insects
Many of the native plant species are seeding presently, and the ants are very actively creating mini-storage dumps, like the one you can see in this photograph.

Birds

We’ve come across 3 new bird species on Ochre Arch since the last newsletter:
• Australian Hobby or Little Falcon (Falco longipennis). These are almost exclusive on-the-wing hunters and in the stoop, a Hobby may reach speeds of well over 100km/h. Large females have been recorded taking Galahs, though their main prey species are smaller than this. The Australian Hobby in the accompanying photo sat curiously watching us for well over half an hour as we were using the chainsaw to cut into sections a large tree that had fallen across a boundary fence.

• Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Our neighbours to our east re-introduced Emu to their property many years ago and over time the numbers have grown. It’s not unusual for us to come across an Emu on our place and we enjoy watching their antics. The Emu is the world's third largest bird, after the Ostrich and the Cassowary. The nest of an Emu can be up to 1.5 metres wide.
• Black Falcon (Falco subniger). These impressive avian predator birds are uncommon and their main stronghold and breeding region is thought to be SE Queensland and NW Victoria. After breeding the birds migrate and disperse across most of eastern Australia and north-west across the Northern Territory to the Kimberley WA.
Our bird species tally currently stands at 68.

The Crested Pigeons that nest in our shed have just produced more offspring. Mikla tells us “They nest anywhere and anytime and make good 'fodder' for raptors, which is just as well because they are one of the 'increaser' species.”

Grasses and Forbs
The rains through November, December and January, coupled with an absence of stock have resulted in Ochre Arch having a reasonable cover of vegetation. Here’s a photo taken in the Spring Paddock. The primary pasture species you can see is Hairy Panic (Panicum effusum).

The taller couple of plants visible in the foreground of the photo you can see are Redgrass (Bothriochloa macra)

There was a colourful cover of native Yellow Burr-daisy (Calotis lappulacea) during late spring across the southern end of the Forgotten Paddock. You can see one of the plants in flower in the accompanying photo.

Here’s a photo of a single Small Grass Burr (Tragus Australianus) taken near the front gate. The species colonizes on bare ground.

Animals
On a recent return to the farm we were confronted out at the verandah by what is arguably an Australian wildlife conservationists ‘enemy number one’. This natural killer was incredibly quiet, and we are not sure whether this was due to having been dumped or purely to temperament and lack of previous contact with humans.

Rock Formations
The aspect of the rock formation in this photograph that captured our attention was not so much the shape but the realisation that with little more than a light shower of rain it creates a small but valuable temporary water point for fauna in its vicinity.

During one of our walks we came across the granite rock formation you can see here – a circular pattern with a centre hole.

A friend of ours near Quirindi, John P., is studying geology so we emailed him a copy of the photo seeking comment. His much appreciated response reads: “The rock photo is indeed interesting, raising some questions that cannot be answered from the photograph 'per se'. The regular hexagonal / polygonal cross-section reminds of magma cooling joints (hot rock shrinks) that form normal to the gravitational flow. However, such are typical of low-viscosity flows (eg. mafic ('black') basalt) and not of highly viscous rhyolitic or crystalline felsic ('white') granitic material. And one would expect to see a whole lot of such surrounding the rock in the photograph. That is, one wouldn't get just one column (hence, "columnar jointing") by itself.

The rock in the photo may come from the cooling of expelled late / residual melt mush (eg. aplite; material high in volatiles and/or silicate incompatible elements), but again, one would expect such low viscosity expressions to result in many cooling joints. Late melt rocks are generally found at the top of the oblong / ellipsoid plutons. (Here I am still assuming that the rock is essentially granitic in composition
- this may not be so. A sample is needed).

Another unusual feature is the hole in the middle. If not made by aboriginals, it might evidence material / mineralogy vulnerable to weathering on the Earth's surface. Further, the rock might be one large feldspar crystal (unlikely).”

We’ve yet to send John a sample or search for similar formations in the surrounds. If the formation was made by Aborigines it would be neat to know what the purpose was.


Community Working Together
In late October a local bloke (ex-farmer) delivered some materials to us. Just before reaching Ochre Arch he’d noticed some smoke rising from a creek on a neighbours place, only a few hundred metres from our boundary. On investigation he and Phillip realised that no one else was aware of the fire so contact was made with the neighbours, including the local fire Captain. Within 10 minutes or so there were 20 local farmers on hand, all working on putting out the fire. We were all very fortunate in that the conditions were such that the total area burned was contained to only a couple of hectares. A few learnings included:
• Two of the golden rules in fire fighting are ‘Don’t panic’ and ‘Try to be useful’
• The Bureau of Meteorology tracks EVERY lightning strike in Australia. A lighting strike caused this local fire.
• The Membership Application process to be become a volunteer with the NSW Rural Fire Service is somewhat arduous, but we’ve come through OK.

Out of curiosity
We are thinking of scoping setting up a structure enabling others to take equity in the stock we manage on Ochre Arch, with the returns being a share of the profits. One of the motivations is enabling the creation of stronger linkages to the land for those who might not have such an opportunity. If this sounds like something that might be of interest to you please let us know.

In Closing
Once again, feedback is most welcome, via email to pdiprose@optusnet.com.au.

Kind regards… Phillip & Jan Diprose

Link to Ochre Archives - Issue No. 7

Correlation between Rainfall and Elevation

Six months or so ago I analysed the data from the three climate monitoring sites closest to and surrounding Ochre Arch. These locations are Forbes, Quandialla and Grenfell. One observation was that the mean annual rainfall at Grenfell (elevation of 410 metres above sea level) was 602 mm whilst Forbes (elevation 240 metres) was 503 mm and Quandialla (elevation 250 metres) was 521 mm. Given that the elevation at various points on Ochre Arch increases by approximately 100 metres (from 315 metres near the house to 415 metres at Lookout Rock) it struck me that there was a reasonable prospect that the rainfall on our place is greater at the highest point and that the order of magnitude would be around 20 %. We now have rain gauges near both the house and Lookout Rock and we are finding that we consistently measure 20 % more rain near Lookout Rock – especially in instances where the rainfall in the area is general rather than narrow storms and such like.

Following on from my previous post looking at temperature and elevation I decided to use the climate data from the locations in and around the landholder sites to see what the correlation was between annual rainfall and elevation.

In the accompanying graph you can see the results. The vertical axis represents both elevation in metres above sea level and mean annual rainfall in millimetres. The horizontal axis shows each of the locations – sorted by ascending elevation from left to right.

Whilst it would not be appropriate to conclude that what occurs in these locations could be expected to be experienced in locations in all regions the graph does show rainfall continuing to increase with elevation increase. At lower elevations the annual rainfall is a much higher multiple of elevation (roughly 3 times) whilst at the higher elevations the rainfall is a much lower multiple (roughly 1 to 1 at Crookwell). This suggests that the trend is likely to reverse at a certain point and a quick look at the data Guyra (elevation 1332 metres, annual rainfall 926 metres) tends to confirm this – although Guyra is in a totally different region.

Correlation between Temperature and Elevation

A mate of mine (David McL.) told me not so long ago that as a rule of thumb, all other things being equal, the temperature at different locations falls by 1 degree Celsius for every 100 metre increase in elevation. Thus a place that was 100 metres above sea level could be expected to be 8 degrees hotter than a place that was 900 metres above sea level.

I decided to put this concept to the test using real historical figures sourced from the Climate Online Data produced by the Bureau of Meteorology. The locations I selected are all on reasonably similar latitudes and are in or adjacent to the various local districts where (most of) the landholders live who are currently participating in a project I have underway in conjunction with the Lachlan Catchment Management Authority and Lachlan Landcare Network.

The approach I took was basically:
1. Source the climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology website for each location
2. Divide the elevation of each location by 100 to derive a temperature adjustment figure. Thus the adjustment figure for Ivanhoe at 85 metres above sea level is 0.85 (degrees C) and the figure for Frogmore given it is 500 metres above sea level is 5 (degrees C).
3. Add the respective adjustment figures to various temperatures (types) for each location to derive an ‘adjusted temperature’ figure. Adding the adjustment figure to the actual temperature in this way is in effect theoretically determining what the temperature would be at sea level – as a common denominator.
4. Analysing the results for various temperature types (such as maximum temperature, mean maximum temperature, mean minimum temperature, and lowest temperature) to test the hypothesis that the temperature falls by 1 degree C for every 100 metre increase in elevation.

My conclusion from the above analysis is that there is a very strong correlation supporting the hypothesis when using data for the mean maximum temperature. The correlation in the data was not nearly as good for the temperature types: maximum temperature, mean minimum temperature, and lowest temperature.

The accompanying graph shows the annual mean maximum temperatures (degrees C) for each of the locations I selected (line at the top of the blue shaded area) together with adjusted mean maximum temperatures (top line of the graph). The maroon shading represents the amount of the adjustment that was applied in degrees C. The vertical axis is temperature in degrees C and the horizontal axis shows each of the locations I selected. The numerical figure at the end of the name of each location is the elevation above sea level. As I’ve said previously the elevation figures were divided by 100 to derive the temperature adjustment figure. For graphing purposes I sorted the locations left to right in order of ascending elevation.

The key points from the graph are:
1. As the elevation increases the actual annual mean maximum temperatures decline (line above the blue shading)
2. The amount of the decline in temperature as the elevation increases is in fact roughly equal to 1 degree C for every 100 metres. This is graphically demonstrated by the fact that the top line figure in the graph is virtually straight and level from left to right – across all elevations.

POST SCRIPT: After completing this post I sent a link to another mate, John F. who happens to work at the Bureau of Meteorology. He subsequently sent me a link to an article that explains some of the science behind the temperature change impact. Here is a link: http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/atmospheric_moisture/lapse_rates_1.html

Energy Consumption by Person / Vehicle Type

During the past couple of months I’ve come across some figures on energy output and consumption that I thought were worth sharing. Here goes …

Human V Oil / Coal Based Energy
The amount of energy in a litre of fuel is roughly equivalent to the amount of energy used by one man working 8 hours a day for 3.3 days.

Freighting Cargo
A litre of fuel will power the transport of 450 kg cargo over the following distances:
170 km by rail via freight train
17 km by road via freight truck
0.4 km by air via plane

My data source for the ‘Human Energy’ figure is David Marsh from a talk he gave at last year’s Carbon Farming Expo and Conference at Mudgee. The ‘Freighting Cargo’ numbers are from Fred Hays at the Center for Sustainable Resources in the USA. I’ve converted their figures as appropriate from gallons, miles and pounds to metric. (NB: One gallon in the USA equals 3.8 litres). Obviously there are a whole bunch of assumptions behind all of the figures. Whilst I’m sure one could spend plenty of time debating the specific magnitude of each calculation I doubt there would be much room for debating the overall fuel use rankings.

I don't have any figures on the amount of fuel required to transport goods via sea, however one suggestion that I read recently seems to have significant potential - using technology to set sails on cargo ships to leverage wind at appropriate times.

Fuel Consumption in Sydney each Tuesday
Fuel prices in Sydney and Melbourne vary of a weekly cycle, with Tuesday being the cheapest given consumers need to purchase is less. Prices are increased by the fuel outlet owners before and over the weekends to catch those consumers who need to top-up before going on non-work related trips and visits. The total fuel demand every Tuesday in Sydney is in the vicinity of 11 M litres, which approximates to the amount of liquid that would be held in 11 Olympic size swimming pools. On days other than Tuesday demand is around 5 M litres.
Given that the total population of Australia is now around 22 M this means that every Tuesday the fuel volume sold is roughly 0.5 litre for EVERY man woman and child in this entire country. Reflecting back on the amount of energy contained in each litre of fuel mentioned at the start of this post the amount of energy contained in the fuel sold in Sydney each Tuesday equates to the amount of energy that would be expended by almost 320,000,000 men doing manual work for one hour.

Temperature impact on Flies and Mosquitoes

Last week we bought one of those plastic bottle fly traps that you put a packet of pre-mixed stuff and water into, and thought we'd give it a go on the farm. About a fortnight before this I'd noticed how at sunrise there was no flies, but by mid morning they were pretty active - and suspected that they needed temperatures of around 15 degrees C to get them going. The instructions that came with the new fly trap set me straight. Flies get active when the temperature reaches 18 degrees, and begin feeding at 20 degrees C.

I decided to see whether temperature has a similar impact on mosquitoes. A quick surf of the internet took confirmed this is the case. Their activity kicks in at 7-8 degrees
C (Alaskan research). Curiously they don't function well in temperatures above 43 degrees C but neither do we! A couple of other things that were of interest - mosquitoes are very slow flyers (1-2 km/hour) and can thus be kept at bay using an electric fan; and mosquito screens on windows were first introduced in the 1880's.

Back on the fly trap - the instructions also suggested that the container would need to be emptied every 2 weeks or so. In our experience, try 1.5 days. This then begs the question of what the natural predators of flies are and what the ecological impact would be of us using the trap. Maybe I'll research this one day as well.

Bird Species Seen on Ochre Arch

Background
Below is the list of all the bird species seen here on Ochre Arch to 23rd May 2021.

The vast majority of species were seen and identified by us since buying the farm in 2003. Other identifications have been carried out by professional ornithologist Tony Saunders (9 new species were identified on 8 February 2011, some by sound ... these are marked with the letters TS) and representatives of Birding NSW (these are marked with the letters BNSW). On the latter, our nearest town of Grenfell is recognised as an 'Important Bird Area'. Three locations on our farm are now surveyed each six months by Birding NSW members and we receive a full list of species seen following each survey. For those interested you will find more information on the Grenfell Important Bird Area here.

The bird species are listed in the order they appear in the bird book we use extensively, “Field Guide to Australian Birds” 2000 edition by Michael Morcombe. For each, the Common Name appears first, followed by the Scientific Name (in brackets), the page number in the book, Date First Sighted, and ‘level of threat’ categorisation if on the NSW Government Office of Environment and Heritage Threatened Species website. Those found here and listed in the DEH website are highlighted in bold. 

There are 108 species in the list below, 7 of which are ‘vulnerable’ and 1 is ‘endangered’.

The List of Birds Seen So Far
Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) Page 14 15/11/2007 Endangered
Stubble Quail (Coturnix pectoralis) Page 18 26/11/2004

Brown Quail (Coturnix ypsilophora) Page 18 12/2/2008
Black Swan (Cygnus atratus) Page 20 12/3/2020

Plumed Whistling-Duck (Dendrocygna eytoni) Page 22 29/8/2020

Australian Wood Duck (Chenonetta jubata) Page 24 21/09/2005

Grey Teal (Anas gracilius) Page 24 2/10/2005
Australian Shelduck (Tadorna tadornoids) Page 26 9/8/2015

Hardhead (Aythya australis) Page 26 2/10/2005

Pacific Black Duck (Anas superciliosa) Page 26 21/09/2004

Australasian Grebe (Tachybaptus novaehollandiae) Page 30 15/10/2004

Little Pied Cormorant (Phalacrocorax melanoleucos) Page 66 22/03/2006

White-faced Heron (Ardea novaehollandiae) Page 72 15/10/2004

White-necked Heron (Ardea pacifica) Page 72 12/04/2006

Rufous (Nankeen) Night Heron (Nycticorax caledonicus) Page 72 12/10/2004

Yellow-billed Spoonbill (Platalea flavipes) Page 76 30/12/2009

Straw-necked Ibis (Threskiornis spinicollis) Page 76 28/09/2004

Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax) Page 84 6/04/2004

Spotted Harrier (Circus assimilis) Page 86 Vulnerable

Black-shouldered Kite (Elanus axillaris) Page 88 5/5/2008

Nankeen Kestrel (Falco cenchroides) Page 92 5/10/2007

Australian Hobby (Falco longipennis) Page 92 3/11/2007

Brown Falcon (Falco berigora) Page 94 26/6/2008

Black Falcon (Falco subniger) Page 94 14/12/2007

Black-fronted Dotterel (Charadrius [Elseyornis] melanops) Page 138 26/03/2005

Masked Lapwing (Vanellus miles) Page 138 15/12/2005

Banded Lapwing (Vanellus tricolour) Page 138 25/01/2005

Crested Pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) Page 158 22/09/2004

Common Bronzewing (Phaps chalcoptera) Page 158 21/09/2004

Diamond Dove (Geopelia cuneata) Page 164 20/10/2008

Glossy Black-Cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus lathami) Page 166 10/6/2007 Vulnerable
Little Corella (Cacatua sanguinea) Page 168 22/10/2017
Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) Page 168 27/09/2004
Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) Page 170 20/09/2005
Galah (Cacatua roseicapilla) Page 170 22/09/2004
Superb Parrot (Polytelis swainsonii) Page 176 18/09/2005 Vulnerable

Eastern Rosella (Platycercus exemius) Page 180 22/09/2004

Mallee Ringneck (Barnardius zonarius barnardi) Page 182 23/09/2005

Red-rumped Parrot (Psephotus haematonotus) Page 184 29/09/2004

Blue Bonnet (Northiella haematogaster) Page 184 28/11/2004

Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) Page 186 11/01/2006

Pallid Cuckoo (Cuculus pallidus) Page 190 20/9/2008

Fan-tailed Cuckoo (Cacomantus flabelliformis) Page 192 22/7/2010
Horsefield's Bronze Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx basalis) Page 192 27/8/2018

Barking Owl (Ninox connivens) Page 196 30/09/2004 Vulnerable
Tawny Frogmouth (Podargus strigoides) Page 200 29/7/2010
Azure Kingfisher (Alcedo azurea) Page 206 7/10/2018
Sacred Kingfisher (Todiramplus sanctus) Page 208 11/11/2016
Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) Page 210 21/09/2004
Rainbow Bee-eater (Merops ornatus) Page 210 15/10/2004
Brown Treecreeper (Climacteris picumnus) Page 218 22/03/2006 Vulnerable

Superb Fairy-wren (Malurus cyaneus) Page 220 8/2/2011 TS

Spotted Pardalote (Pardalotus punctatus) Page 230 8/7/2010

Striated Pardalote (Pardalotus striatus) Page 230 29/3/2008

Speckled Warbler (Chthonicola sagittata) Page 236 15/10/2004 Vulnerable

Western Gerygone (Gerygone fusca) Page 238 3/11/2012
White-throated Gerygone (Gerygone olivacea) Page 240 12/10/2013
Weebill (Smicrornis brevirostris) Page 242 8/2/2011 TS

Yellow Thornbill (Acanthiza nana) Page 242 8/2/2011 TS
Buff-rumped Thornbill (Acanthiza reguloides) Page 242  29/3/2014 BNSW

Yellow-rumped Thornbill (Acanthiza chrysorrhoa) Page 242 8/2/2011 TS

Chestnut-rumped Thornbill (Acanthiza uropygialis) Page 242 8/2/2011 TS

Brown Thornbill (Acanthiza pusilla) Page 244 16/9/2006
Inland Thornbill (Acanthiza apicalis) Page 244 29/3/2014 BNSW

Southern Whiteface (Aphelocephala leucopsis) Page 246 24/02/2006

Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater (Acanthagenys rufogularis) Page 248 18/12/2008

Striped Honeyeater (Plectorhyncha lanceolata) Page 248 9/12/2008

Noisy Friarbird (Philemon corniculatus) Page 250 5/7/2006

Blue-faced Honeyeater (Entomyzon cyanotis) Page 252 24/02/2006

Noisy Miner (Manorina melanocephala) Page 252 25/09/2004

Brown-headed Honeyeater (Melithreptus brevirostris) Page 266 18/3/2023

Hooded Robin (Melanodryas cucullata) Page 274 25/03/2005

Red-capped Robin (Petroica goodenovii) Page 276 22/03/2005
Eastern Yellow Robin (Eopsaltria australis) Page 278 19/6/2016

Jacky Winter (Microeca fascinans) Page 280 22/03/2006

Grey-crowned Babbler (Pomatostomus temporalis) Page 282 29/09/2004

Rufous Whistler (Pachycephala rufiventris) Page 292 14/04/2006

Grey Shrike-Thrush (Colluricincla harmonica) Page 294 16/2/2007

Leaden Flycatcher (Myiagra rubecula) Page 298 10/9/2006
Grey Fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa) Page 300 29/3/2014 BNSW

Willie Wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys) Page 300 25/09/2004

Magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca) Page 302 25/09/2004

White-winged Triller (Lalage tricolor [sueurii]) Page 302 13/10/2004

Black-Faced Cuckoo-Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae) Page 304 31/8/2006

Ground Cuckoo-shrike (Coracina maxima) Page 304 26/09/2005

Masked Woodswallow (Artamus personatus) Page 308 15/10/2004

White-browed Woodswallow (Artamus superciliosus) Page 308 15/10/2004
Black-faced Woodswallow (Artamus cinerus) Page 308 12/10/2013

Dusky Woodswallow (Artamus cyanopterus) Page 308 14/04/2006

Grey Butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus) Page 310 13/10/2004

Pied Butcherbird (Cracticus nigrogularis) Page 310 27/09/2005

Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen) Page 312 19/09/2005

Pied Currawong (Strepera graculina) Page 314 20/09/2005

Australian Raven (Corvus coronoides) Page 318 13/10/2004

Little Raven (Corvus mellori) Page 318 8/2/2011 TS

White-winged Chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) Page 320 13/10/2004

Apostlebird (Struthidea cinerea) Page 320 13/10/2004

Australian (Richard's) Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae) Page 326 8/2/2011 TS

Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata) Page 330 20/03/2006

Double-barred Finch (Taeniopygia bichenovii) Page 330 23/5/2021

Diamond Firetail (Stagonopleura guttata) Page 334 15/10/2004 Vulnerable
Mistletoebird (Dicaeum hirundinaceum) Page 338 8/2/2011 TS

Welcome Swallow (Hirundo neoxena) Page 338 22/09/2004
White-backed Swallow (Cheramoeca leucosternus) Page 340 22/5/2016

Rufous Songlark (Cincloramphus mathewsi) Page 344 8/2/2011 TS

Brown Songlark (Cincloramphus cruralis) Page 344 28/8/2007
Sivereye (Zosterops laterilis) Page 346 29/3/2014 BNSW

Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) Page 350 12/7/2006

Ochre Archives Newsletter - Issue No. 7

Introduction
Welcome to the seventh edition of ‘Ochre Archives’, our farm newsletter.

Feedback on Ochre Archives No. 6
Aboriginal archaeologist, Sue Hudson, let us know that False Sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea) was used by both pre-European Aboriginals and Europeans. It tastes something like Sarsaparilla (hence its name) if you soak the leaves in water and cool in the fridge. The early settlers boiled water and added torn leaves to make a tea substitute. Sue’s tried it this way but “was not too rapt”, stating “tea is much nicer but if you are stuck for tea leaves, anything will do I suppose. It is incredibly hard to grow in some gardens as it only likes gravel, dry conditions and no competition but does make a pretty rockery plant!” We’ve found 3 more plants on the farm. Here’s a photo of another one recently in flower.
On Wedge-tailed Eagles and other topics - An organic farmer (who wants to remain anonymous) recently went to Taronga Zoo in Sydney. They have an amazing bird show where an eagle flies less than a metre over the assembled crowd [in an outdoor amphitheatre]. Females are the bigger of the species.

On the subject of erosion control, he says they recently put in a control bank and were going to cover it in hay to give some short term ground cover and to get some native grass growing. They’ve now learned that many 'pioneer' (first to colonise bare ground) native species don't like heavy mulch in any form. “It is better to cut native grass with seed heads and lay this on the ground allowing seeds to fall out and the grass to transfer necessary soil micro-organisms to the soil.” We’ll give this a go as well. The photo below shows the results on some bare ground were we’d placed a thin section of square section baled straw. We’re not sure what species are in the photo (probably all exotics) but the vegetation cover is not bad given the entire area was totally bare beforehand.


On the subject of fungi - our anonymous organic farmer friend recently attended a two week course on soil micro-biology at Lismore presented by Elaine Ingham who is head-honcho of the Soil Foodweb Institute. Elaine explained that four organic acids are the result of creating in-soil anaerobic (no air) conditions, each with a distinctive bad smell: Acetic acid is like vinegar, Butyric acid is like sour milk, Valeric acid is like vomit and Putrescine smells like decaying flesh! These anaerobic conditions cause minerals that would normally be converted to plant friendly compounds to be lost to the soil, and in some cases add to global warming gases. Our friend suggested that where the Dogs Vomit fungi (a.k.a. Slime Mould) was growing – was probably a sign of bad things / anaerobic processes happening. He’s spot-on, we reckon.

We’ve been accused of name-dropping in our Newsletters. ‘All feedback is good’ as the saying goes. We were remiss in not explaining that we only include names of people who we believe are highly competent in their chosen vocations or have given us express permission to share the feedback. This serves two purposes: giving credit where credit’s due’ and enabling readers to directly contact them if they so choose. Of course we are not responsible for any negative outcomes resulting from such contacts!

Findings from recent trips to the farm
Trees and Shrubs
There is a very large vine immediately to the west of Lookout Rock which we now know is a Wonga Wonga Vine (Pandorea pandorana). This photograph was actually taken at Jan’s brother’s place at Trundle. We’ve used this one as the plant was in flower at the time.

A Dawn Magazine article on the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) website states that “In the Central and Western Deserts the Wonga-wonga vine (Pandorea pandorana) was regarded as the best wood for woomera-cast spears because of its high flexibility. In fact, the mechanical properties of this woody vine were so suitable that short pieces were spliced together if long ones were not available (Cleland and Tindale 1959:139). It was such an important species that a group of mythological women, who had slender and flexible bodies, was named after it (Strehlow 1971:469).”

We have discovered a Kangaroo Apple (Solanum laciniatum) plant growing on the place.

The Australian National Botanic Gardens website explains that the botanical name means:
• “Solanum - from the Latin, ‘solamen’, meaning to solace or comfort, referring to the narcotic properties of some species; and
• ‘laciniatum’ - from the Latin, lacinia, meaning a lappet or flap of a garment, referring to the lobed leaves.”
From what we understand the Aborigines used the fruits of these plants to trigger abortions!

The shrub you can see to the right in the following photograph is a Showy Parrot-pea (Dillwynia sericea).

These are only evident in a small area of the property, are leguminous and a strong high-protein ‘diet of choice’ for livestock.

Insects
If anyone knows what the insect species are in the following three photographs please let us know!

Birds
The bird in this photograph is a Common Bronzewing (Phaps chalcoptera) and the picture was taken in what we call the Native Pasture Paddock.

They feed mainly on the seeds of native grasses and acacias collected from the ground and were themselves popular for hunting and eating during the early days of European settlement (but are now protected).

We’ve identified 2 new bird species:
• Brown Songlark (Cincloramphus cruralis) – Exceptional in that the male is much larger than the female. They are nomadic, don’t hang around in drought affected areas and males have a very distinctive call during the mating season.
• Nankeen Kestrel (Falco cenchroides) – A slender falcon with a very distinctive black band at the end / underside of the tale. One of the most commonly seen bird species in Australia due to its “tolerance for a wide variety of habitats and its ability to feed on a variety of foods and nest in a range of sites”.

Grasses and Forbs
In a previous edition we mentioned finding Rock Isotome (Isotoma petraea) on various outcrops. From what we now know it seems these are actually Showy Isotome (Isotoma axillaries).

The accompanying photograph is of one of these plants (with the blue flowers - whichever species it is!) together with some Native Plume Grass (Dichelachne) – a most promising species for pasture grass.

The Plateau Paddock is now almost totally covered in Native or Blue Crowfoot (Erodium crinitum). Several locals have told us that this winter and early spring have produced close to ideal conditions for the growth of this species.

The lack of recent rain means that the Plateau Paddock (and most others) have hayed-off and now look very different to what’s below. The roots of these plants are supposed to be edible.

Animals
We watched this Echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) blissfully wandering around the Middle Hill Paddock for about 20 minutes or so.

A new-born is called a puggle and is smaller than a jellybean. Echidna mothers don't have nipples so the puggle prods a small patch of skin inside the pouch which causes thick milk to ooze out which it licks up. When it is too big for the pouch and starts to get spines its mother leaves it in a burrow (sometimes ex-rabbit burrows) while she looks for food. From about 7 months old it fends for itself.

The dead tree you can see below is home to some type of furred animal, most likely a possum but we’re not certain. We could see the animal through a very small hole in the trunk but could not identify it properly.

One way to accurately identify animals in these situations is to place double-sided sticky tape at the entrance to the hollow. A few strands of fur are all that is needed for DNA testing, which is carried out by environmental scientists.

Rock Formations
We came across the rock formation (below) in Ghost Valley, which has a shelter in it used frequently by a Red-necked Wallaby which we often see in the vicinity.

Also suitable for a small wife!!!

Commercial Activity
For 2 months we had over 600 sheep on Ochre Arch on agistment. For the trivia-minded, the dry matter consumption of the animals would have been just less than 60 tonnes. The factors used to determine animal dry matter demand include species, age, weight, growth rate, sex, state (pregnant, lactating, or ‘dry’) and number of offspring.
The sheep had a very positive impact on the land, including weed control, mineral cycling and trampling. Some of their diet of choice included the core of growing Patterson’s Curse and the stems, flowers and seed pods of the Wild Radish.

Community On-farm Event
On 11th October we hosted a ½ day visit to Ochre Arch by about 20 members of the Lachlan Grassy Box Woodlands Conservation Management Network who came to see some of the Endangered Ecological Community (EEC) remnants of White Box and Blakely’s Red Gum Woodlands on the farm. The main speakers on the day were local nature guru Mikla Lewis (who organised the whole event) and Sue Hudson (Aboriginal archaeologist).

The highlight for us was Sue’s discovery of 2 scar trees, where bark had been removed by Aborigines to manufacture coolamons. The picture shows Sue with one of the trees.

In Memoriam
Jan’s mum, Shirley, passed away on 5th September from uterine cancer. It was all quite sudden really, and we will miss her greatly.

In Closing
Once again, feedback is most welcome, via email to pdiprose@optusnet.com.au.

Kind regards .... Phillip & Jan Diprose

Link to Ochre Archives Newsletter - Issue No. 6

Creative Bush Tucker Cooking

We attended the Trundle Bush Tucker Day on 1st September 2007, and were among other things extremely impressed with the variety of cooking apparatus. Here's a selection for you to check out.
First up we have what could be described as a on oven made out of fencing wire and foil, covering a hunk of beef on a spear - in the format of a cooking spit.




Next is the Trundle equivalent of a New Zealand hungie. The cook wrapped a chunk of beef in foil, and this in turn was pplaced in a hessian bag and burried under the ground in some coals. Three hours later out came one of the most succulently cooked bits of beef imaginable.



And here's the Trundle equivalent of a Chinese restaurant, complete with dual plough disc woks.



To finish off, here is a quite unique structure for cooking kebabs ... a large C section piece of black steel on a stand, filled with coals at just the right height to keep turing the kebabs until cooked to taste.

Update on Ochre Arch Monitoring Sites

In Feburary I psoted an article describing the establishment of 4 monitoring sites on Ochre Arch. See http://ochrearchives.blogspot.com/2007/02/ochre-arch-land-monitoring-sites.html

It's now almost 6 months since the photographs in the above blog site were taken. Since then we have had no stock on the place and there have been several rainfall events - resulting in the growth of various grass species coupled with a substantial increase in the level of groundcover. Given this I've taken a new set of photographs, some of which appear below.

For each of the 4 sites (sequentially 1 through 4) I've included below a landscape view looking east from exactly the same location as those taken in February. When looking at the landscape views it needs to be borne in mind that the seasons are totally different - now winter as opposed to mid-summer, and as I say there has been no stock on the property. Thus it is not reasonable to directly draw conclusions based on comparisions of the photographs.

Ochre Archives Newsletter - Issue No. 6

Introduction
Welcome to the sixth edition of ‘Ochre Archives’.

Feedback on Ochre Archives No. 5

Sue Hudson, Indigenous Archaeological Consultant, let us know that “both Sida corrugata and Hopbush were used by Aboriginal people as bush-tucker. The roots of Sida were used as a vegetable (roasted in ground-oven like parsnip) and the seeds from around ant nests were collected, ground and turned into flour-like consistency for cakes. With Hopbush (D. boranifolia, D peducularis and D. truncatatiales) the fruit was dried (easier to carry) and reconstituted in water and either eaten or used for flavouring as a drink.”

Alanna Moore from Geomantica suggests that “you can also try adding crushed basalt to algified waters or organic barley straw-bales around where water runs in (could be expensive!). With Matt Rush, the base of the leaf, was chewed as an important carbohydrate source in the Aboriginal diet plus they were woven into articles. A most useful plant!"

An organic farmer has let us know that de-stocking only damages the land in brittle environments [as per Savory] where it is for an extremely long period. Peter Braden wanted to understand the underlying causes of how this can occur where native animals are still in the environment. The answer is quite involved. It’s probably best that I refer readers to the book titled Holistic Management – A New Framework for Decision Making by Allan Savory. Peter also asked whether Biodynamic preparations are effective in the home garden. In short - most definitely - based on our own experience.

Jacqui Stol from the Agricultural Landscapes Research Group within CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems noticed the photo of one of the white fungi in the newsletter and a couple of days later was shown a similar photo by one of the CSIRO researchers, Sonia Graham. Jacqui referred the photo to her mycologist friend Professor Jim Trappe, from Oregon State University who responded “the fungus is a slime mould, Fuligo septica. Its common name is the ‘Dog Vomit Fungus’. At early stages it is soft and slimy, later it dries out and forms a mass of dark spores. It is closer phylogenetically to animals then to plants, and the mass when soft moves slowly across the substrate, engulfing organic matter and stuff to digest like an amoeba, except it is multicellular. A weird but cool organism”! We fully concur with Jacqui’s closing comment - “What a fascinating thing - being closer to the animal kingdom than the plant kingdom”. A Google search brought to light an article on slime moulds by a bloke by the name of Tom Volk. Curiously he mentions that it was slime moulds that inspired the science fiction movie, "The Blob." (1958 with Steve McQueen, remade in 1988).

Findings from recent trips to the farm
Trees and Shrubs


We’ve now found 2 native False Sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea) plants growing on Ochre Arch. They are leguminous and don’t like frosts.
Insects
During a 30 mm rainfall event in May we had some Giant Swift Moths (Trictena Argentata) flying into the glass on the front door of the house on the farm. They are also known as Rain Moths because of their habit of emerging from the cocoon (brown pupal shells) in the earth following late autumn rains.


To quote from the South Australia Museum website: "Waikerie" on the river Murray bears the Aboriginal name for this moth whose emergence in great numbers at this place provided a seasonal feast for the Aborigines” and that the “grubs feed on bark of gum trees.” The Waikerie website explains that the Aborigines “dug them from the ground or caught the emerged moth as they flew around their camp fires at night”.

Birds
We now regularly see a pair of Wedge-tail Eagles.

During the June long weekend we watched this solitary Glossy Black Cockatoo blissfully crunching its way through a mass of seedpods on two of the She-oak trees on the farm. We’d never seen these before, and now know they are listed as ‘vulnerable’ on the Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW Threatened Species database.

Erosion control
We are reducing soil erosion risk and activity through encouraging increased organic matter ground cover (addressing the root cause - bare ground) and taking steps to slow the speed of water runoff where it’s practical to do so. Organic matter ground cover is being increased through (continuing to keep stock off the place) allowing the grass to grow and physically placing organic matter on bare ground. On some of the tracks we have been strategically placing a shovel full or two of grass with soil in the (mini) emerging gullies (for want of a better term) to slow the water down during rainfall events. You can see in this photograph how effective this can be. What is also obvious from the photograph is just how much soil is being washed, and how some of it is being trapped and retained.

We have quite a few smaller trees growing through some of the fences. Rather than have them further damage the fences as they grow we are removing them and placing the organic matter on the larger patches of bare earth. Positive results are apparent after as little as 3 weeks, evident through the backing up of soil against the on-ground branches, growth of grass adjacent to the organic matter, and reduced rate of soil loss. There’s still a huge way to go.

Tips and Hints
Our thanks go to Wayne Lavers and Mikla Lewis for sharing with us what we think is a fabulous tip when planting trees and shrubs. Rather than buying special guards and protectors just place some thick fallen branches over the seedlings. The branches keep native herbivores such as Kangaroos away, provides protection for the plant and habitat for small critters, and avoids the need to outlay $’s for the guards.

In Closing
Once again, feedback is most welcome, via email to pdiprose@optusnet.com.au.

Kind regards… Phillip & Jan Diprose

Link to Ochre Archives Newsletter - Issue No. 5

Area of Australia Covered by the Great Artesian Basin

A few days ago I did an internet search to try and ascertain the area of Australia that covers the Great Artesian Basin (GAB). It just so happens that the Australian Government’s Department of Environment and Water Resources published on the 7th May 2007 a new map addressing this very question, which I found at the following web address: http://www.environment.gov.au/water/publications/environmental/rivers/pubs/gab-map.pdf

There are many people who believe that underground water can be found at any location in Australia if one drills deep enough into the earth’s surface. After seeing just how extensive the GAB is it’s easy to see how this view can be formed. In a recent discussion with the wife of the bloke who did the drilling on our place to try and find bore water she suggested that a large percentage of the underground water in Australia come from the rainforests of New Guinea to the north. The map of the GAB actually appears to support this theory.

A few days ago I was speaking with a bloke who works for one of that northern NSW Catchment Management Authorities. He told me the following:
1. In most parts of South Australia the bores to the GAB are only around 200 metres deep, at which point the water level is reached.
2. There is a project underway that will see 1200 open GAB bores capped, and that this project is well advanced.
3. In NSW bore depths to the GAB range from 300 metres to 1400 metres
4. The current problem with bores accessing the GAB is not a fall in the level of water but rather a substantial drop in the pressure … which means that some bores now have to be pumped, rather than it naturally coming to the surface.

On another matter connected with underground water, I was talking to a bloke from near Adelaide the other day and he told me about the mountain range that is just to the west of Adelaide which rises to over 1200 feet above sea level quite quickly. There is a narrow strip about 400 metres wide just to the east of the top of this ridge that gets about 54 inches of rain per annum due to the topographical impact connected with air carried moisture and weather patterns. The geology along the ridge where most of the rain falls is sandstone – quite porous. A great deal of the water that falls along the narrow strip goes straight underground and rapidly recharges the local water table, from which many of the local source water for vegetables and fruit trees and such like. Apparently this is one of the few water tables in Australia that are in fact recharging regularly. Those living as little as 500 metres away from the edge of the ridge receive annual rainfall around half or what falls along the narrow strip. Pretty neat I reckon!

Global warming and heat island effects

Since writing my last blog on climate data available from the Bureau of Meteorology I’ve had some correspondence with Wilma Keppel of the US based www.managingwholes.com website. Wilma highlighted the impact of what are termed ‘heat islands’ on temperature and climate. In short, heat islands are built up areas such s towns, cities and even road-ways where the temperatures in and around them tend to be above that of the surrounding areas. It’s not hard to conclude that these must play a role in increased air temperatures more widely than just in those areas.

Here’s an extract from Wilma’s last email that I thought was worthy of sharing more widely.

“The heat island effect can be significant. The northernmost native persimmons that John ever found were in the heat island of central Omaha, Nebraska (almost exactly in the middle of the continental U.S.). This city of about half a million is 3-4 degrees C warmer than the surrounding areas.

As you can imagine, heat island effects greatly increase people's perceived need for air conditioning. Using air conditioning increases outdoor air temperatures -- both by pumping heat outdoors, and by running compressor motors. And when outside air temperature goes up, air conditioner efficiency goes down.

A big part of the problem is pavements and roofs that absorb heat. Installing high-reflectance roofs can have a HUGE effect. (On chicken coops, too -- see my chicken tractor article on Managing Wholes).

Another significant effect comes from big trees that shade roofs and pavements. This is also a significant effect on heat buildup in the countryside. I well remember driving through eastern Iowa, which used to be home to the western edge of the eastern hardwood forest that covered most of the east half of the temperate parts of North America. Sensible states like New Hampshire allow trees to grow right up to the edge of the roads, shading them and keeping them cool. Iowa has a policy of cutting trees within 10 meters or so of the road, which means no shade. And since most of the country has been plowed into farms with huge fields, cutting down the roadside trees has gotten rid of a large proportion of the remaining strip woodland windbreaks, so soil erosion has gone up. Cutting the trees also drastically decreases habitat for the remaining native wildlife. All this so drivers going too fast on icy road D/S won't spin off and hit a tree. (New Hampshire has narrower, steeper roads, and gets more snow, but expects people to drive sensibly.)”

Wilma’s comments also reminded me of a conversation I had not so long ago with a mate, Garry Coates, who used to (and probably still does) tour widely throughout Australia on a motor bike. When riding during the heat of the day out on the western plains areas throughout New South Wales he found that the temperature difference between heavily treed and open areas was significant. In the open areas he’d find himself suffering, and close to heat exhaustion. In the treed areas he was cool and not sweating at all. Garry’s view is that a lot of the Australian areas with large treed canopies (such as around Heallsville, Narbethong, Toolangi etc) are naturally drought resistant. Plants and animals survive there OK because the moisture gets locked in. Take away the large trees and the moisture goes as do the animals.

With regard to Garry’s observations Wilma mentioned that Peter Donovan (also of the US based www.managingwholes.com website) told her that in researching tropical rain forests, he discovered that they typically occur in at least somewhat brittle climates, and it's the tree canopy that keeps the forest underneath moist throughout the dry season.

Bureau of Meteorology On-Line Climate Data

Today Jan gave me a copy of “The Australian Fruit and Vegetable Garden” book which was published in 2006 by members of The Digger’s Club. This is an excellent publication, and details the types of plants that are suited to various areas of Australia based on different climates. We will use the book as part of planning what vegetables, and fruit and nut trees to grow on Ochre Arch.

From a temperature perspective the book refers to the following ‘growing range of food plants by air temperature’:
* Tropicals CZ 11, 12. Growing range; +5 degrees C to +35 degrees C
* Sub-tropicals CZ 10, 11, 12. Growing range; -1 degrees C to +35 degrees C
* Temperate fruits CZ 8-9a. Growing range; -15 degrees C to +25 degrees C
* Hardy annuals. Growing range; +5 degrees C to +25 degrees C

The book also uses the terms:
* ‘growing days’ which are defined as where the maximum temperature is equal to or greater than 15 degrees C
* ‘hot days’ which are defined as where the maximum temperature is equal to or greater than 30 degrees C
Among other things it is also important to look at minimum winter temperatures.

The above prompted me to figure out what climate zone Ochre Arch fell within, in the context of the various bands that the book discusses. I ended up getting onto the Bureau of Meteorology website to see what data is available, and it just happens that they’ve added an excellent new feature which they’ve titled ‘Climate Data On-line’. To quote directly from the website: “Climatology maps, prepared using data collected over a long period of time (generally 30 or more years), show the variations in climate across the country. Other maps show a range of weather, hydrological and climate information.” In short, one can source average, mean and specific (e.g. minimum and maximum) information for each month of the year since recording commenced by location.

The 3 nearest weather recording locations to Ochre Arch are at:
~ Grenfell (410 metres above sea level, and approximately 20 km [direct] south west of the farm),
~ Forbes (240 metres above sea level, and approximately 35 km [direct] north of the farm) and
~ Quandialla (250 metres above sea level, and about 45 km [direct] south-west of the farm).

The following data was gleaned from the Bureau of Meteorology website:

Long term data – Month by month since Bureau of Meteorology records commenced:
The Bureau’s database records for the long term statistics start from 1965 for both Grenfell and Quandialla, and 1873 for Forbes.

1. Highest ever recorded temperature in degrees C
Grenfell = 43.9 on 15 January 2001, Quandialla = 45 on 31 January 2001, and Forbes = 47.8 on 11 January 1882.

2. Mean number of days (in a year) where the temperature is equal to or greater than 30 degrees C
Grenfell = 66 days, Quandialla = 90, and Forbes = 92

3. Lowest ever recorded temperature in degrees C
Grenfell = -6.5 on 15 June 2006, Quandialla = -5.8 on 21 July 1983, and Forbes = -5.6 on 11 July 1958

4. Mean number of days (in a year) where the temperature is equal to or less that than 0 degrees C
Grenfell = 11.6, Quandialla = 21, and Forbes = 20

5. Mean annual rainfall in mm:
Grenfell = 609, Quandialla = 509, and Forbes = 521

Annual data – past 12 complete months i.e. 1 May 2006 to 30 April 2007
6. Number of days during the period where the temperature is equal to or greater than 15 degrees C
Grenfell = 313, Quandialla = 331, and Forbes = 329

7. Number of days during the period where the temperature is equal to or greater than 15 degrees C (See point 6 above) LESS Mean number of days (in a year) where the temperature is equal to or greater than 30 degrees C (from point 2, above):
Grenfell = 247, Quandialla = 241, and Forbes = 237


The figures show some (to me) significant differences, especially between Grenfell and the two other towns of Quandialla and Forbes.

Quandialla and Forbes have almost twice as many frost nights (where the temperature is equal to or below zero) each year than Grenfell. Grenfell’s higher altitude (410 metres V 240 & 250) could be one of the key factors, as could the fact that the location of the Grenfell weather station is on the top of the main hill in the town whilst (the topography of) Forbes and Quandialla are quite flat. Cold air is heavier, so the temperature on the top of hills is as a rule warmer than in the gullies. Curious that Grenfell has actually recorded a lower minimum temperature than Forbes and Quandialla (and that is occurred only last year), presumably due to the higher altitude?

Quandialla and Forbes both have almost 50 % more hotter days (greater than 30 degrees C) than Grenfell. My theory is that altitude has the biggest impact. Forbes and Quandialla have both recorded higher maximum temperatures than Grenfell. It’s also interesting to note how hot it was at Forbes in 1882 (and a pity I don’t have comparable data for the same year for Quandialla and Grenfell).

I’m not sure whether it is valid to do the calculation I’ve done in point 7 above (deducting ‘hot’ days from ‘growing’ days to in effect come up with a ‘net annual growing days' number), but if it is then the result effectively means that all 3 locations have about the same number of net growing days. Grenfell is renowned as one of the best dryland cropping regions in Australia. The above statistics would suggest that this is driven by comparative altitude (less hot days to knock the crops around), comparable growing days and higher mean annual rainfall.

Ochre Arch’s altitude varies from around 315 metres to 415 metres above sea level. This provides us with some excellent opportunities to site different species of fruit & nut, and vegetables to suit their natural requirements. For example, we’d place plants needing more frost on the lower areas near the gullies; and those plants that do not like frost toward or on top of the hills. From a ‘human habitation’ angle it would seem that given the house is on the lowest part of the property it will be subjected to the coldest nights and hottest daily temperatures. Perhaps we need to relocate it to the hills! It’s also my gut-feeling that the amount of rain that falls on our higher country is higher than on the lower. In time I hope to prove or disprove this as we now take rainfall measurements at both the house and near one of the high points on the property.